Macedonia in Korea - It’s Image and Memory:
Kim, Wonhoi[2]
“Language is not merely a medium of communication – however
important that medium is – but the unifying factor of a particular culture and
often a prerequisite for its survival. No other factor is as powerful as
language in maintaining by itself the genuine and lasting distinctiveness of an
ethnic group.”
(Giles H. and B. Saint-Jacques, Language and Ethnic
Relations, New York: Pergamon Press 1979, IX)
I. Introduction
Cultural difference is the one of cultural factors,
which anybody feels easily. It has been relative characteristic, also it has
been experienced in same cultural circumstance sometimes. If we had same
cultural factors all over the world, there are no misunderstanding and cultural
shock. But every country in the world maintains own languages, institutions,
and traditions. This differences from other countries cause misunderstandings
and complications at the international stage. Therefore the importance of intercultural
communication has been dramatically developing. Millions of
people change homes each year, crossing cultural boundaries. Immigrants and
refugees resettle in search of new lives.
In this increasingly integrated world, cross-cultural adaptation is a
central and defining theme. Cross-cultural adaptation is particularly relevant
to immigrants and refugees, but the need for cross-cultural understanding
extends further. In modern multiethnic societies, newcomers need to learn to
communicate with the newcomers. In a world which has become a global village,
even those living in their traditional homelands need to develop some
cross-cultural understanding in order to be able to cope with the larger world
confronting them in a variety of ways.
As a part of cognitive linguistics, the field of
intercultural communication has been researched by linguists in Europe and USA
from 1960th years.[3]
In Korea there are only few articles in this field (especially in the field of
Slavic intercultural communication). The most important part of former research
is what is cultural value in each cultural area, how to develop and embody this
value in accordance with the nation or people. But no attempt has been made to
study on cultural value and typology through the analysis with image and memory
resources in Korea. Several specific lines of inquiry are
reviewed below. This paper aims to create
the intercultural communication tactics through the analysis about image and
memory uses and its changes of Macedonia in Korea. The reason why I choose the
intercultural communication between Macedonia and Korea as a research target is
as follows: (1) the very important position of Macedonia in Balkan cultural
area, (2) it is to be hoped that this paper contributes to strengthen the
educational and cultural exchange between these countries and promoting the
Korean studies in Macedonia and the Macedonian studies in Korea.
This paper is divided into three chapters. In Chapter 2,
I will explore the former research in Korea, focusing on the Macedonia and
Macedonian culture and intercultural communication. In Chapter 3, I will study
on the selective key words (or concepts) which are the one of most valuable in Macedonian
life. And I will consider factors affecting intercultural communication. These
factors are subjective and differ from culture to culture. Then we can
understand cultural essences and characteristic in Macedonia and it’s culture.
In dealing with this issue, we can find more effective way to communicate by comparisons
with these two cultural mechanisms. In Chapter 4, I will summarize discussion
and findings mentioned in previous chapters and make a proposal for future research.
II. Macedonia and Macedonian culture in Korea
Before we embark upon an analysis of former research
in Korea, we should consider that Korean researchers divided the group of cultural
words that include Macedonian cultural essences into as follows.
|
group (1)
|
History
|
|
Great
king Alexander
|
|
|
group (2)
|
Religion
|
|
Mother
Theresa
|
|
|
group (3)
|
Green
energy
|
|
Solar
energy, Korean company cooperation
|
|
|
group (4)
|
Holy land and St. Paul
|
|
Bible
and St. Paul's missionary works
|
|
|
group (5)
|
Balkan region and Byzantine
|
|
Historical
and cultural conflicts
|
Now, let's go with the memories of Macedonia,
scattered in Korea. In Korea, methods to collect data on Macedonia are mainly
following two. First method is the collecting data from Korea's National
Archives with the help of records management division for the overseas and
domestic information. Second is to cooperate and find the data from intellectual
property portal that provides DB, Korea Education & Research Information
Service (www.riss4u.co.kr). Yet unfortunately, the Korean National Archives
does not preserve any records and materials, related Macedonia. This section shall
leave to the future challenges for researchers.
Second, if we surf on the internet
by the key word “Macedonia” in Korea Education & Research Information
Service, we can find a total of 377 Macedonia-related materials. Among them, 17
cases are in dissertations, 38 cases are in research papers and books and video
materials are searched a total 322 items (www.riss4u.co.kr,
2011, June 5, Sept. 23 searched). The following is a list of the details of
this.
II-1. Dissertations on Macedonia
After 1980, a total of
17 dissertations, related to Macedonia, are published in Korea. We can classify
them as follows.
1. A study on conflicts in Macedonia (1998)
2. International organization
and political refugees in Kosovo ( 2004)
3. A study on segregation policy
in Former Yugoslav Republics: correlation between the ethnic conflicts and
segregation policy (1994)
4. Korean diplomacy and honoroty
consul, stationed in Korea (2006)
These 4
dissertation are dedicated to the Macedonial problems, especially on the ethnic
conflicts and segregations of former republics. Also we can find the dissertation on Kosovo problem.
5. Poverty
spirituality of St. Mother Theresa (2008)
6. A study on the date of Paul
letter through the Paul's chronicle (2011)
7. The theme and
elucidation of Epistle
of
St.
Paul (the Apostle) to
the
Philippians (2010)
8. A study on the missionary
agenda in the documents of St. Luke (2004)
9. Missionary cooperations of
Japanese church with Korean church (2003)
10. An introduction to the
pastoral care of St. Paul and Cynics (2011)
11. A study of a lay believer's
professional work in early protestant mission history: focusing on Lee,
Soo-Jung's bible translation in Japan (2003)
12. Wesleyan spirituality for evangelical
preaching (2004)
13. The history and theme of St.
Paul's missionary tour (2007)
14. The church, purity and
cannon (2005)
Dissertations,
above illustrated, are mainly related to the religion. Macedonian territory was the land of St. Paul's missionary
works. So many Korean theologists studied about the ancient missionary works
and history. A total of 10 dissertations are on it. Among them, we can find the
one dissertation, contributed to the St. Mother Theresa.
16. A study on the relation
between ancient Egypt costume and ancient Greece costume through the drapes (2002)
17. The Research about history
and characteristic of the Oriental Belly dance (2004)
Next, we
can find the dissertations on the Byzantine costume, ancient Egypt costume and
ancient Greece costume. Also there is one dissertation on the Oriental Belly dance.
II-2. Academic researches and
articles
Macedonian is a South Slavic
language divided into two large groups, the western and the eastern Macedonian
dialects. The Macedonian literary language was based on the central dialects of
Veles, Prilep, and Bitola. The Cyrilic alphabet that the Macedonian language
uses, was developed by the Macedonian brothers from Solun, St. Cyril and St. Methodius
(Sveti Kiril i Metodij), in the IX-th century. It was thought by their
disciples (St. Kliment and St. Naum) at a monastery in Ohrid, Macedonia, whence
it spread across the Eastern Slavic world.
Although both the Cyrilic and the Roman alphabet are widely known in
Macedonia, Cyrilic is predominantly used. Main signs and street names are
printed either in Cyrilic script only, or in both alphabets. The spelling of
Macedonian is phonetically based. Almost every word is written exactly as it is
pronounced, and every letter of a word is pronounced. The stress accent varies
in different situations and only one certain rule can be given - the last
syllable of a word is never stressed. There are 31 letters in the Macedonian
alphabet. Concerning to the Macedonian language, Korean scholars have many
discussions as followings.
1)
Leaving behind the bilingual theory.
2)
Wider access for Bulgarian so that it can be used parallel to the current form
of the Macedonian literary language.
3)
Optional teaching of Bulgarian in primary and secondary schools.
4)
Establishment of an Institute of Bulgarian Language and Literature in the
University of Skopje.
5)
Usage of the Bulgarian alphabet (orthography) for the current form of the
Macedonian literary language.
6)
Lifting all restrictions over the free exchange of newspapers, magazines and
literature between Macedonia and Bulgaria.
7)
Linguistic integration by way of joint radio and TV broadcasts, as well as
theatre shows and recitals in the two countries.
8)
Creation of a joint institution on the Macedonian-Bulgarian linguistic matters.
(The linguistic convergence could intensify in this way).
9)
Avoidance of further serbization of the language.
10)
Exchange of works of history between the two
11)
The right of free choice of a surname.
12)
Joint effort on behalf of Macedonia and Bulgaria for the recognition of the
Slav-Bulgarian ethnic group in Aegean Macedonia (Greece) in compliance with the
principles of the European minority rights (see: the linguistic map in
"Die slawischen Sprachen" 15/1988).
13)
Recognition of minorities based on uniform principles.
14)
Observance of accurate terminology with regard to residents of Macedonia
(Bulgarian Macedonians, Albanian Macedonians, Turkish Macedonians etc.) and of
Bulgaria (Bulgarian Bulgarians, Turkish Bulgarians, Macedonian Bulgarians etc.)
.
These
articles are dedicated to the Macedonial problems, especially on the ethnic
conflicts and segregations of former republics. Also we can find the articles on minorities problem.
II-3. Books and monographies on Macedonia in Korea
1. 그리스의 영광과 몰락, 김진경, 안티쿠스,[2009]
2. 알렉산더 = Alexander [비디오 녹화자료] 가네모리,요시노리, 프리미어 [제작],[2003]
3. 비포 더 레인 [DVD 영화자료], Manchevski,
Milko, JY Media,[2009]
4. 또 하나의 유럽, 발칸유럽을 읽는 키워드, 김철민, 김원회 한국외국어대학교 출판부,[2009]
5. 동유럽의 민족 분쟁 : 보스니아·코소보·마케도니아, 김철민, 살림,[2007]
6. 동유럽에서 보헤미안을 만나다, 이기중, 즐거운상상,[2007]
7. (이야기) 世界史, 세계사연구회, 世界史硏究會,[1964]
So far, according to data until now,
we can try to ask the following questions.
"Macedonia to the Koreans, What kinds of images and memories provides?"
The answer is the following cultural keywords. I will explain
them by photos.
1) Mother Theresa
Mother Teresa was born Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu in
Skopje, Macedonia, on August 26, 1910. Her family was of Albanian
descent. At the age of twelve, she felt strongly the call of God. She knew she
had to be a missionary to spread the love of Christ. At the age of eighteen she
left her parental home in Skopje and joined the Sisters of Loreto, an Irish
community of nuns with missions in India. After a few months' training in
Dublin she was sent to India, where on May 24, 1931, she took her initial vows
as a nun. From 1931 to 1948 Mother Teresa taught at St. Mary's High School in
Calcutta, but the suffering and poverty she glimpsed outside the convent walls
made such a deep impression on her that in 1948 she received permission from
her superiors to leave the convent school and devote herself to working among
the poorest of the poor in the slums of Calcutta. Although she had no funds,
she depended on Divine Providence, and started an open-air school for slum
children. Soon she was joined by voluntary helpers, and financial support was
also forthcoming. This made it possible for her to extend the scope of her
work. On October 7, 1950, Mother Teresa received permission from the Holy See
to start her own order, "The Missionaries of Charity", whose primary
task was to love and care for those persons nobody was prepared to look after.
In 1965 the Society became an International Religious Family by a decree of
Pope Paul VI. Today the order comprises Active and Contemplative branches of
Sisters and Brothers in many countries.
In 1963 both the Contemplative branch of the Sisters
and the Active branch of the Brothers was founded. In 1979 the
Contemplative branch of the Brothers was added, and in 1984 the Priest branch
was established. The Society of Missionaries has spread all over the world,
including the former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. They provide
effective help to the poorest of the poor in a number of countries in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America, and they undertake relief work in the wake of
natural catastrophes such as floods, epidemics, and famine, and for refugees.
The order also has houses in North America, Europe and Australia, where they
take care of the shut-ins, alcoholics, homeless, and AIDS sufferers.
The Missionaries of Charity throughout the world are
aided and assisted by Co-Workers who became an official International Association
on March 29, 1969. By the 1990s there were over one million Co-Workers in more
than 40 countries. Along with the Co-Workers, the lay Missionaries of
Charity try to follow Mother Teresa's spirit and charism in their families. Mother
Teresa's work has been recognised and acclaimed throughout the world and she
has received a number of awards and distinctions, including the Pope John XXIII
Peace Prize (1971) and the Nehru Prize for her promotion of international peace
and understanding (1972). She also received the Balzan Prize (1979) and the
Templeton and Magsaysay awards (Editor-in-Charge Tore Frängsmyr, Nobel Lectures, Peace 1971-1980,
World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1997).
2) Great king Alexander
3) Green Energy Cooperation
4) Holy Land
5) Balkan regions. Byzantine, Cultural
conflicts et al.
First group of the key words has very strong meaning at
modern view point. The third group is contemporary description and also its
meaning is not enough meaningful to analyze at this moment. Eventually we
realize the most important group is first, second, fourth and fifth group.
Research on intercultural communication is still in
its early stage in Korea. There have been only few general studies on Russian
cultural codes and communication problem about the Slavic world. As Kee(Kee 2001: 기 연수
All human beings’ activity which was formed under the
influence of natural environment and history can be characterized, so called
cultural factors. These factors define a tendency of human beings’ activity. It
is divided into “need”, “value”, “belief”, and “attitude”.
First, the need is a psyco-physical feeling, which is motivated some
kind of action. It is very important method to interpret a speech action.
Second, the value is a way to direct to the proper action. It is an evaluable
aspect of psychological system. Third, the belief is a base to judge something.
And finally, the attitude is a reaction of something to like or dislike(Kee,
2000, 78-80). These four factors activate to cultural phenomenon of each
country. The core factor of them is a value system sharing at its community.[4]
The concept of “core place territory”, “long history
and sufferings”, and “religious value system” have been generally applied in Macedonian
and Korean.
Ⅳ. Conclusion
It should be the task of linguistics to provide models both
theoretically viable and practically useful, that is models seeking not only to
explain in the abstract how cross-cultural communication and adaptation occur
but also to provide practical tools which could be implemented in
cross-cultural education. To sum up, the
following conclusions can be made:
(1) Many Korean think about Macedonia and Macedonian
people by the following 5 key words: Mother Theresa, Great King Alexander,
Green energy cooperation, Holy land and Balkan region, Byzantine and conflicts.
(2) Time: long history and sufferings. (3) Space: Core place in Balkan
It would be serious oversight to conclude that
cultural differences and communication problem between two countries, base on
just 5 cultural key words. But, regarding the beginning stage of Macedonia
study, we should make the proper tactic for further spreading the information
and image of Macedonia to Korea. Finally,
One significant aspect of culture is
code switching. Since it is impossible for people to communicate with people
from other linguistic/cultural groups effectively without one of the
communicators switching codes, it is reasonable to argue code switching should
be central to most, if not all, research in intercultural communication. like
now, many Korea like Macedonian football player, who is now playing in Korean
football team “Samsung Suwon” , Mr. Stevo.
Keywords: cross-cultural
communication, Korea, Korea’s Image, religion,
the Balkans and Macedonia
Conflicts of Human
Civilization and a Healing Place for the Humanities: The Balkans, Macedonia,
Skopje[5]
Kim Wonhoi
I. Introduction
Macedonia, which
served as a center of the ancient Greek civilization in history of Western
civilization, is no longer functioning as a center in modern society. Rather,
it has turned into a place for conflicts of civilization among Albanians from
the Illyrian civilization, the Balkan ethnic group based on the ancient
Thracian civilization, and Slavic people who came down to the Balkan Peninsula
in the 6th century. These forces of civilization represented by Islam and
Orthodoxy, Albanian and Slavic Macedonians coexist in Skopje, Macedonia,
creating universality in their multicultural space. The creation of
universalism is made possible through thinking and healing through the
humanities. This research will look into various aspects of conflicts of
civilization in Macedonia and look into the reasoning and healing through the
humanities in Macedonia. This research will include the adaptation of double
languages, joint research and education on history, embracing other cultures
and a diversity of image data symbolizing the healing through the humanities.
The second region, for which the research on healing through the humanities is
required, is Kosovo. Kosovo is the region that currently shows the most
divisive conflict of civilizations in the world. The conflict in Kosovo will be
in stark contrast with that in Skopje. This research is also an intuitive study
examining the possibility of healing through the humanities in Korean society,
which is turning into a civilization of conflict and a multicultural society.
II. Body
1. What kind of country is Macedonia to Korean
people?
Macedonia is a country that is located at the center
of the Balkan Peninsula, with Bulgaria located to its east, Serbia to its
north, and Greece to its south. And it shares its borders with Albania. Due to
its geopolitical position, the competition between countries has been fierce in
this region since ancient times. Given the fact that Greece (Byzantine),
Bulgaria, and more recently, the former Yugoslavia have been competing
intensively to secure this region, Macedonia can be understood as the most
important strategic place in this region.
When Korean companies or public corporations enter
into the overseas markets and when the private sector begins to communicate
more and more with foreign entities, Macedonia is the region that can be
utilized as a bridgehead in the Balkans. Macedonia is culturally similar to
South Korea. Due to its geographical position, Macedonia has not had many
historical and cultural exchanges with South Korea until the 20th century.
Thus, South Korean society’s interests in Macedonian ethnic groups and
countries remain a mere curiosity of exotic cultures. Since the fall of the
Berlin Wall and the subsequent collapse of the socialist system, there has been
a reverse-orientalism perspective of viewing Macedonia and other countries of
the Balkans in South Korean society based on its capital and technological
competitive edge.
Geographically, Macedonia is located far away from
South Korea; but historically, it is very closely related with South Korea. The
two countries share many things in common: both countries don’t have
full-fledged capitalism, lack experiences of agricultural revolution and civil
revolution, have a vulnerable citizen class and a strong intellectual class,
have experiences of colonialism, and have walked their unique roads to
modernity, which is different from the Western society’s road to modernity.
2. Macedonia, Skopje
2.1. Conflicts of Civilization in Macedonia’s History:
In Ancient and Medieval Times
|
|
Ethnic Identity
|
|
Macedonia
|
- When ethnicity is considered, ancient Macedonian people are not
Greek.
-Ancient Macedonia maintained its own culture and identity.
- Ancient Macedonian people maintained their identity despite
suppression from foreign powers – such as Greece.
|
|
Greece
|
- Ethnically, Macedonian people are Greek.
-Greece and Byzantine civilization culturally assimilated this region.
|
|
Bulgaria
|
- Medieval Macedonian people are assimilated Bulgarian people.
-They are referred to as western Bulgarians.
|
|
Serbia
|
- Medieval Macedonians have assimilated to become Serbians.
- Assimilation took place over the course of several centuries.
|
|
|
Language Identity
|
|
Macedonia
|
- Macedonian is an independent language.
|
|
Greece
|
- It’s true that the Macedonian language is a Slavic language. But it
should not be used as an indicator of categorizing people in the region as
Bulgarian.
|
|
Bulgaria
|
- There is no Macedonian language. The language used in this region is
a western dialect of Bulgarian.
|
|
Serbia
|
- Macedonian people have traditionally used a language that is similar
to Serbian.
|
|
|
Territorial Conflicts
|
|
Macedonia
|
-Since the 19th century, the movement of restoring the country’s
native land has been promoted.
|
|
Greece
|
-As a result of such movement, some parts of the territory were
restored.
|
|
Bulgaria
|
-The territory of Macedonia belonged to Bulgaria until the late 19 century.
|
|
Serbia
|
- In medieval and modern times, Serbia occupied a significant portion
of the region. Currently, it is claiming sovereignty to the territory.
|
(Gounaris, 1996, Kim Chul-Min, 1999 Source Data)
Greece-Bulgaria-Serbia is the axis of conflicts in
Macedonia in ancient and medieval times. Greece had conflicts due to
territorial and ethnic identity issues while Bulgaria has a conflict structure
in all areas – including ethnic identity, and territorial and language issues.
With Serbia, territorial conflicts are being emphasized and the severity of
conflicts is quite low in the identity and language areas when compared with
Bulgaria.
<Figure 1: Map of Macedonia and Kosovo>
2.1. History of Conflicts of Macedonian civilization:
In the Early-Modern and Modern Times
<Picture1: Islam Mosque in Skopje>
<Picture 2: Orthodox Church in Skopje>
Conflicts in modern
times can be divided into two: First is ethnic conflict surrounding Albanian
people living in Macedonia. Second is conflict with Greece over the country
name of Macedonia and over national flag.[6] In this research, we
will be taking a look at only ethnic issues surrounding Albanian people.
Albanians are scatted
over the Balkan Peninsula. Around 3 million Albanian people reside in Albania,
and around 1.8 million and 600,000 Albanian people live in Kosovo and Macedonia
respectively. Most Albanians live in the capital city of Skopje and other
cities in the western Macedonian region (Altmann,
1992: 165). Albanians living in the western region named their region Ilirida and requested autonomy of their region. Furthermore, they
also requested the elevation of their region’s status to Narod given the fact
that the ratio of Albanians is the largest among minorities. Such issues are
still ignored by the Macedonian government due to the possibility of a second
Kosovo war and equality issues with other minorities. The ethnic issue is
absolutely related to issues concerning Islam and Orthodoxy. The percentage of
ethnic groups in Macedonia is shown on the table below.
(Kim
Chul-Min 1999: 319)
|
|
Ethnic
Group
|
Population
|
Percentage
(%)
|
|
Majority
|
Macedonian
|
1,314,283
|
64.62%
|
|
Minority
|
Albanian
|
427,313
|
21.01
|
|
Turk
|
97,416
|
4.79
|
|
|
55,575
|
2.73
|
||
|
Serbian
|
44,159
|
2.17
|
|
|
Wlach
|
8,129
|
0.40
|
|
|
Other
|
87,089
|
4.28
|
|
|
Total
(Minority Ethnic Groups)
|
719,681
|
35.38
|
|
|
|
Total
Ethnic Group
|
2,033,964
|
100.00
|
<Table1:
Macedonia Population Composition >
Albanians, whose
population is the largest among minority ethnic groups, argued that they have
been living in the current Albania, Kosovo, and in the western and southeastern
regions of Macedonia ever since the Bronze Age based on a theory on Illyrian
native inhabitants (Kwon Hyuk-Jae 1998: 6). In
addition, Albanians have consistently complained of discrimination against
Albanians as an ethnic minority group in education, culture, and other
rights-related fields.
2.2. Healing of Conflicts through the Humanities
<Pictre3: Signs in Albanian and Macedonian Language
(left) and the Albanian District>
In the Macedonian Constitution, it is stipulated that
Macedonians shall coexist with Albanians, Turks, Wlachs, Rumanians in the
Republic of Macedonia and shall provide equal rights to all citizens residing
within the country. In particular, Macedonia makes strong efforts to protect
the rights of Albanian minorities. A case in point is the bilingual traffic
signs both in Macedonian and Albanian. Both languages have been used even in
the northern region of Skopje where the majority population is Albanian. A
number of academic researches have been carried out to figure out the
similarities and common grounds of the two languages based on the recognition
that Albanian and Macedonian languages both belong to the Balkan language
family.
Historically, Macedonia has been a place for multiple
ethnic and religious groups – including Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek ethnic
groups. Such various cultures and ambiguity over territorial boundaries have
made it difficult to set clear boundaries between different ethnic groups and
served as the major reason for the conflicts of civilization (Terzić 1995).
Based on such a recognition, Macedonian and Albanian people are currently
working together to establish their common history and foster their common
culture. Although it is true that the Macedonian government is still wary of
the possibility of the great Albanianism dominating the country, there are many
national joint research projects that are underway to research Illyrian civilization
and to determine the boundaries and roles of Slavic-Macedonia regions.
3. Kosovo, ‘a Powder Keg of the Balkans’ – Agony and
antagonism of the aliens who are living together
The Balkan Peninsula, which became the beginning place
of the First World War with a single gunshot in Sarajevo in 1914, still remains
an explosive region just like the crater of an active volcano. And Kosovo in
Serbia is the region where ethnic conflicts are most fierce out of many regions
on the Balkan Peninsula. Historically, Kosovo was the sacred place for Serbian
people. The Medieval Serbian Kingdom, which was developed based on the Principality
of Raswika, established a national foundation in the era of the Serbian King
Stefan Nemanja. Stefan Nemanja conquered the Pincipality of Zeta and built
strong ties between the state and Orthodoxy, laying a foundation for the
Medieval Serbian Kingdom in the current Kosovo-Metohija region. Stefan
Nemanja’s son Stefan Nemanjić built an independent Serbian Kingdom, breaking away from
the shadows of Byzantine (1217), and thanks to the
effort of Saint Save, the Serbian Orthodoxy became independent from the
Bulgarian Ohrid Parish in 1219. Since then, Kosovo became a sacred place for
Serbians as it is the first parish of the Serbian Orthodox Church. However, the
status of Kosovo as a sacred place became weak after Kosovo was conquered by
the Ottoman Turks. The Serbian Kingdom became divided internally over the
king’s throne and eventually fell due to the invasion of the Ottoman Turks
after King Stephan Dushan, who is praised as the greatest king in Serbian
history, died at the age of 46 in 1335. In the fight against the Ottoman Turks
during the period between 1363 and 1371, King Stephan Uroš and his
brothers died, and the Medieval Serbian Kingdom
became a tributary state to the Ottoman Turks. After the First Kosovo War
between the Christian coalition and the Ottoman Turks in Jun 1389, Kosovo fell
under the rule of Turkey and many Albanian people in the region converted to
Islam. Also, an increasing number of immigrants began to come into this region.
On the contrary, Serbian people who believed the Serbian Orthodoxy had left
their hometown moved to Hungary or Transylvania. As a result, Albanian people
became the majority and Serbian people became the minority in Kosovo (within
the Serbian territory), creating a gap in the ethnic group composition
(Albanians became the majority).
The conflicts in Kosovo under the Socialist Yugoslavia
resulted in the consecutive victories and defeats of Albanian and Serbian
ethnic groups depending on domestic or global political atmospheres. Alexander Rankovic, a Serb who made efforts to expand Serbianism
(Serbian Nationalism), repressed Kosovo separatism
and engaged in various maneuvers to enhance the status of Serbian people in the
region. However, the eavesdropping of President Tito’s official residence in
1966 sparked a heated discussion on raising the status of Albanian people, and
in 1968, Kosovo eventually earned autonomy by breaking away from Serbia. The
new constitution, Novi Ustav, was adopted in 1974 as a means to maintain
Yugoslavia as a multiethnic country and to prepare for the time after the death
of the President Tito. And in accordance with the new constitution, Kosovo was
able to exert a power of representation within the federation. The atmosphere
in the region, which was focused on guaranteeing the rights of Albanian people,
is well illustrated in the protests for the status of the Republic of Kosovo,
which took place in May 1980 after the death of President Tito. Albanians in
Kosovo called for the creation of Republika Kosova, a separated Republic under
the framework of the federation, and called for the status as the majority
ethnic group in the region. Under Socialist Yugoslavia, the last two important
events related to Kosovo took place. The first one is Slobodan Milošević’s
speech on the hill in Kosovo in 1987 when Slobodan Milošević visited Kosovo to
investigate the growing protests of Albanians in the 1980s. The second one is
the disposal of Kosovo’s autonomy in Mar 1989. In 1987, Slobodan Milošević made
strong nationalist comments against Serbians in Kosovo and suddenly became a
leading player for expanding Serbianism among Serbian people. When Slobodan
Milošević was elected to be Serbian president in 1989, he abolished autonomy
for Kosovo and Vojvodina and declared the expansion of Serbianism in Socialist Yugoslavia,
thereby triggering the collapse of the federation and the conflicts between
ethnic groups. Amid a series of bloody conflicts, on Mar 24, 1999, NATO forces
conducted raids on Kosovo and Serbian lands to protect the human rights of
Albanian people living in Kosovo. Since then, the Balkan region started to
garner global attention. As the ‘Kosovo War’ lingered on for a long period of
time against people’s general expectations, G7 countries - the US, Germany, the
UK, France, Italy, Japan and Canada - and the ministers of G8 countries (G7
countries and Russia) agreed in principle on the peaceful resolution of the
Kosovo War on May 6th, 1999. On Jun 2nd, 1999, Russian and EU envoys met with
Slobodan Milošević and delivered the message of G8 countries. On Jun 3rd,
1999, Serbia declared that NATO-led
peace keeping forces would deploy about 50,000 troops and divide Kosovo into 5
districts to conduct peace-keeping operations in accordance with the G8
countries’ ‘Kosovo peace formula,’ which was later approved in the Yugoslavian
Parliament. On Jun 10th, 1999, the two sides reached a consensus on the ‘Kosovo
peace formula’ for the withdrawal of Serbian forces from Kosovo and for the
presence of UN peace keeping forces in Kosovo, thus resulting in the end of the
79-day Kosovo War.
Since then, UNMIK (The UN Interim Administration
Mission in Kosovo) and NATO-led KFOR (Kosovo Force) have conducted and
monitored peace-keeping activities in Kosovo on the basis of SCR 1244 (Security
Council Resolution 1244) adopted by the UN Security Council on Jun 10th, 1999.
Those peace-keeping forces in Kosovo are tasked to guarantee safety and
peaceful living of residents in Kosovo, to guarantee the return of about
200,000 deportees and refugees, and to encourage Serbia to offer Kosovo large
autonomy.
<Picture 5: Albanian Refugee Camps in Kosovo and A
Bombed Islam Mosque >
80:20 is the ratio of
ethnic groups in Kosovo. Albanian people take up as high as 80% of the
population in Kosovo while Serbian people account for less than 20%. The
discord and hostility between these two ethnic groups are a main source of
conflicts in Kosovo. In addition, the US and western European countries’
support for Albanian ethnic groups and Russian and other Slavic countries’
support for Serbian ethnic groups are making the Kosovo situation worse.
Kosovo has become a
place for confrontation between pan-Albanianism and pro-Serbianism and between
pan-Illyrianism and pan-Slavism. In order to solve such confrontations and
conflicts in the region, a radical method of ‘dividing Kosovo by exchanging the
populations between different ethnic groups’ can be considered, or a gradual
method of inducing a soft landing to ‘a multi-cultural society’ by overcoming
victim mentality can also be considered. It’s the duty of humanities scholars
to think about possible solutions and suggest wise choices for those who are
living everyday in the fear of death and destruction in Kosovo.
III.
Conclusion
Macedonia, which is
called the powder keg of Europe and which went through civil war in 2001, still
experiences conflicts of civilization between different ethnic groups or
religious groups. However, as shown in the picture above, the conflicts occur
as Albanian and Macedonian people in the region occupy the left and right side
of the same background. An Albanian traditional pattern symbolizing eternal
life and a Macedonian traditional doll symbolizing fertility and luck are still
displayed together in every corner of the capital city Skopje. Can the solution
of promoting coexistence be applied to Kosovo? And how can it be applied to an
increasingly multicultural society of South Korea?
IV. References
Kwon Hyuk-Jae (1998) About Kosovo Conflict, Research
on Eastern Europe, 7, 1-26.
Kim Won-Hoe, Kim Chul-Min (2009) Another Europe, Keywords in
examining the Balkans, Seoul: Hankuk University of Foreign Studies.
Kim Chul-Min (1999) Research on Macedonian Ethnic
Conflict, Research on Eastern Europe, 8, 303-326.
Altmann, F. (1992) Ex-Yugoslavia's Neighbors: who
wants what?, the World Today, 8/9, 163-165.
Brown, K. (2003) The Past in Question: Modern
Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation, Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Gounaris, B. (1996) Social Cleavages and National
Awakening in the Ottoman Macedonia, East European Quarterly, 29(4), 409-426.
Terzić, S. (1995) The Serbs and the Macedonian
Question, in: The Serbian Question in Balkans, Beograd: Faculty of Geography,
63-82.
Prof. Kim, Wonhoi
Department of Greek and Bulgarian studies
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea
+82-11-245-2535
Research fields: Macedonia, Balkan Region Studies, Old
Slavic Language, Slavic Culture, Intercultural Communication in Slavic World
[1] This
research is supported by the 2011 research grant from the
Academy
of Korean Studies, Korea (Overseas
Korean Studies Incubation Program, AKS-2010-ANC-3102).
[2] Associate
professor of department of Bulgarian Studies, Hankuk University of Foreign
Studies, Korea.
[3] The term “international
communication” appears to have been first used by Edward T. Hall in his now
classic book, “The Silent Language”. The appearance of this book stimulated the
study of intercultural communication.
[4] Generally
speaking, there are values to define cultural aspects of human beings, as
follows(Park & Klopf, Intercultural Communication, Fundamentals, Seoul:
Hanshin Publishing Co. 1992): individuality, peace, modesty, punctuality, firstness,
respect for elders, equality of women, efficiency, aggressiveness, religion.
[5] This
research is supported by the 2001 research grant from the
Academy
of Korean Studies, Korea (Overseas
Korean Studies Incubation Program).
[6] The issue over the
country name has existed since Sep 8th, 1991 when Macedonian citizens expressed
their overwhelming support for the existence of the former Yugoslav states in a national referendum.
The Greek government brought up the issue of the Macedonian map on which it is
named Great
Macedonia and the issue of Macedonia’s national flag, which has a Virginia 16 square shape to the UN Security Council on Jan, 1993.
In Aug 1993, the UN Security Council suggested F.Y.R.M (the Former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia) and approved the registration of the country in the UN.
However, there are still conflicts between Macedonia and Greece as the country
still sticks to its previous name of ROM (Republic of Macedonia).
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